Summary of article

The theory of women's creative development is a result of examining the creativity of women for over a decade. An overview of the creative process, women's creativity and women's learning are discussed. Based on the works of Abraham Maslow and E. Paul Torrance, this model is an attempt to gain insight into the creative strengths of women. Strategies such as mentoring and Torrance's educational model are practical ways to foster the development of creativity in women. Creativity is not a gender specific ability, but its recognition, acknowledgement and development are.

Women's Creative Development

Traditional tests have neglected the competencies important to real-world performance, thereby neglecting the competencies of most women. The intelligence testing movement originated in attempts to predict the academic competence of men and so concerned itself with the prediction of school performance. Using familiar situations with prior knowledge and reasoning may be sufficient in school and on intelligence tests, but it is not very effective in solving real world problems or meeting the challenges of everyday life.

Daily we are required to cognitively bridge or use our creativity to deal with the unexpected and ever changing world. We know very little about the creative processes of everyday life. Most creativity research has focused primarily on men and exceptional/extraordinary creativity, not the kind we use every day. Consequently, we know very little about the creativity used every day to navigate life and survive. And we know very little about the creativity of women.

Creativity

Creative thinking is much more than using our imaginations to invent lots of new ideas. Creative thinking is a lifestyle, a personality trait, a way of looking at the world, a way of interacting with others and a way of living and growing. Living creatively means developing our talents, tapping our unused potentials and becoming what we are capable of becoming through self-discovery and self-discipline. Anytime we are faced with a problem or dilemma with no learned or practiced solution, some creativity is required (Torrance, 1995). It takes courage to be creative.

Creativity is a vital ingredient in meeting the challenges of a continuous life cycle, a cycle in which growth and change are the norm from conception throughout life. A life filled with growth and change requires a conscious effort to think creatively, it takes practice. To develop creativeness, the mind needs to be exercised as well as filled with materials out of which ideas can be formed. The richest fuel for ideation is first hand experience (Osborn, 1963).

Creativity is the ability to see a situation in many ways and continue to question until satisfaction is reached. This satisfaction can be defined in as many different ways as there are people experiencing it, but it basically boils down to personal satisfaction and how you choose to define satisfaction.

The creative process can involve tiny creative leaps or giant breakthroughs in thinking. Both require that an individual go beyond where she has gone before, embracing the unknown, the mysterious, the change, the puzzling, without fear. Creativity involves risk-taking. Whether it's a small risk or a huge risk, it takes courage to take a risk and be creative.

Creative potential is the ability to respond constructively and in non-habitual ways to change and stress. A substantial body of evidence indicates that males and females perform at similar levels on tests designed to measure creative potential (Torrance, 1983). Creativity measures are consistently better predictor's of women's creative achievements than are measures of intelligence (Torrance, 1972). As mentioned earlier, IQ tests are based on learning cultivated and valued by men, therefore traditional learning settings are generally not the best learning environments for females (McCracken, 1997).

Creativity and Women

A balance of feminine and masculine intellectual and personal qualities appears basic to creative endeavors (Helson, 1973). Our overemphasis or misplaced emphasis on sex roles is a serious block to the development of many talents, especially creative talents (Torrance, 1995). Creativity, by its very nature, requires both sensitivity and independence. In our culture, sensitivity is a feminine virtue while independence is a masculine virtue. Girls are encouraged to speak quietly, avoid math and sciences classes, defer to boys, value neatness over participation and appearance over intelligence (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Rarely do women become scientific discoverers, inventors or composers. Very few women have made contributions to theories of creativity.

There is little doubt that the attitudes and treatment towards girls and women by society influences their creative development and behavior (Torrance, 1972). Many areas of experiences are placed off limits to girls which interferes with their natural gifts and what we might become as women (McCracken, 1997; Torrance, 1965). Helson (1996) compared highly creative women with less creative women and found the former were:

• more ambitious
• confident
• had a stronger sense of purpose
• needed partners and relationships that support creativity

In Maslow's study of positively healthy, self-actualizing people he changed his ideas about creativity. Maslow (1987, p. 159) described one woman as uneducated, poor, a full-time housewife and mother who was not creative by traditional standards, yet was a marvelous cook, mother, wife and homemaker. With little money, her home was somehow always beautiful. She was a perfect hostess and her meals were banquets. Her taste in linen, silver, glass and furniture was impeccable. She was original, novel, ingenious, unexpected and inventive in all of these areas. He just had to call her creative. He learned from her and others like her to think that a first-rate soup is more creative than a second-rate painting, and that generally cooking, parenthood and/or making a home can be creative while poetry can be uncreative.

Creative innovation is facilitated by certain social roles and are not usually available to women (Helson, 1978). Creativity investigators have concerned themselves only with creative men and masculine areas of interest or with the question of why women are not creative (Helson, 1978). Male judges of creative contributions tend to favor work similar to their own. Women's contributions do not customarily receive the same recognition. Pohlman (1996) suggests that creativity may be more of a social process, dramatically affected by social environments and institutions, than simply a psychological trait inherent in individuals.

Until recently, most publicized and depicted roles for women were those of tradition - housewife, secretary, nurse, etc. Only recently have women begun to reach levels of recognized success in roles previously off limits to women - professional basketball player, CEO of a Fortune 500 company, senator, investment broker, doctor, governor, etc. These successes will contribute to changes in the history we teach our children.

By excluding women from the textbooks we study and the stories we tell, women have been relegated to a second class citizen status. The perception is that women must not have contributed to Wall Street or scientific discoveries since they are not included in the textbooks or the stories that are told. Women become invisible and are perceived as being incapable of such contributions. Despite the increasing number of women entering into the public arena, they remain relatively rare in the elite levels of the arts, sciences, letters, finance, politics and ranks of the eminent (Noble, Subotnik & Arnold, 1999).

Women and Learning

In general, women are relational learners whose motivation to learn depends upon how relevant it is to our lives. Most of women's valued lessons are learned from friends, colleagues, life crises, transitions and community involvement. Women tend to place emphasis on relevance and personal meaning in what is taught and how we feel about that information. For many women, the truth is personal, particular and grounded in first hand experience (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986). However, most school environments place emphasis on inanimate facts and figures with no opportunities to personalize the learning.

Human experience has traditionally been defined using the patterns of the male experience. Male attributes are valued, studied and articulated while those associated with the feminine tend to be ignored. The analytical, masculine style of most school and work environments generally do not encourage nor foster relational learning thereby denying many girls and women equal opportunities for learning. Kaplan (1995) indicates that new ways of seeing girls and women and human possibilities can come from women bringing their own unique ways of operating to light.

Generally, men and women approach learning differently. The feminine approach to learning focuses on: negotiation, feelings, understanding, personal relationships, intuitive, other oriented, win-win outcomes. A growing body of literature on women's development has begun to illuminate issues regarding women's learning styles (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982, 1993; Goldberger, Tarule, Clinchy & Belenky, 1996; McCracken, 1997).

Women have grown up with historically and culturally ingrained definitions of womanhood in which women, like children, should be seen and not heard. The majority of voiceless students in typical college classrooms are women (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Women in college and university classes speak less and are interrupted more (Reis, 1998). Many women fear that others will condemn or hurt them if they speak, that others won't listen or understand, that it is better to be "selfless" and give up their voices to keep the peace (Gilligan, 1993). By not speaking, women are giving up a powerful instrument and channel that connects the inner and outer worlds.

Women typically approach adulthood with the understanding that the care and empowerment of others is central to their life's work (Belenky et al., 1983). Tradition teaches women that getting something for herself is selfish and will deprive others since her role is that of caretaker and nurturer who sacrifices her needs for those of her family and others. In everyday and professional life, women often feel unheard or discouraged from pursuing unfeminine work or roles.

Most women have cooperative and collaborative learning styles which value experience and connecting with others (Gilligan, 1993). Belenky et al. (1986) believe that connected knowing comes more easily to many women than does separate knowing. Girls respond well to working cooperatively in a relaxed atmosphere with hands-on experiences (AAUW Report, 1995). For many girls and women, successfully learning takes place in an atmosphere of collaboration and opportunities for exploring diversity of opinion. Pearson (1992) cited that most women prefer:

• collaborative, intimate learning settings
• learning experiences which integrate theory with practice
• cognitive processes which utilize feeling, empathy and thought.

Learning is more than the accumulation of new knowledge, it is a process where many basic values and assumptions, by which we operate, are changed through our learning processes (Mezirow, 1978). Increasing awareness of gender related differences will increase levels of understanding and awareness. Learning environments that are collaborative, creative and caring provide the support that many girls and women need to excel. Creative work and personal happiness come through finding environments which celebrate success and individual differences (Reis, 1998).

Development

As children, before we begin our traditional learning experiences, we are expert learners who use all of our senses and motor capabilities to learn. We learn by experiencing, such as sticking a crayon into our mouths, ears or noses. We learn by seeing what the crayon can do, such as drawing, mashing, eating or crumbling it. We learn by comparing the crayon to other things that mark or are colorful. All of us begin life as experiential and relational learners. It seems logical then to believe that education must validate these processes of learning in order to meet the needs of all learners, not just those who do well on pre-determined standards.

Children are experts in creative ways of learning and self-expression. They have considerable experiences in questioning, inquiring, searching, manipulating, experimenting, creating, exploring and playing. However, as children enter school, many restrictions are placed on their manipulativeness and curiosity. Schools target the cognitive and intellectual areas for development, with the areas of intuition, affect and self-expression being left to develop on their own. As a consequence, many children do not learn to express themselves or their creativity and do not learn to deal with personal difficulties in a healthy manner.

One of the most consistent findings in creativity research with children is that discontinuities in creative development often result in loss of interest in learning, increased behavioral problems and increased emotional disturbances (Torrance, 1977). These periods are at times so extremely stressful that an individual's creativity is inhibited, reduced or unnecessarily lost as s/he ages. As a child ages into adulthood there are more obstacles to the development of her/his creativity and self-expressiveness. These obstacles include pressure to conform, ridicule of unusual ideas, the drive for success and rewards based on other's demands and standards, and the intolerance of a playful attitude. It is far too common for people to grow up and lose touch with their creativity and inner potentials.

Learning by doing should not be left to mere chance, but should be part of the guidance we give to learners of all ages. We need to offer opportunities for learners to explore and examine core subjects creatively. Creative thinking and learning involve such abilities as evaluation, redefinition, analysis, divergent production and problem solving abilities. Creative learning is a natural, healthy human process that occurs when people become curious or excited about understanding or knowing more.

Model

Although development is a continuous process, discontinuities or pauses do occur in the developmental flow. These pauses can occur in childhood and continue throughout life. Due to societal enculturation and expectations, creativity tends to develop differently in women and men. The following model supposes that creativity is an innate ability whose development occurs in stages.

For centuries, women have been considered incapable of achieving creative success. Women's creative products and achievements have been underrated or ignored in history. Women have historically been encouraged to marry and raise families exclusively. Only with the help of mentors, have women been encouraged to pursue creative achievements or to think of ourselves first. As a consequence, we know very little about the creativity of women and only of the creative achievements of a very few courageous women.

This model of women's creative development is based on the works of Maslow and Torrance. Abraham Maslow's hierarchical model of development involves a broad based triangle with self-actualization at the smallest peak. In this model, an individual is not likely to engage in creative activities (self-actualization) until s/he has met all of the other needs. The model of women's creative development is similar to Maslow's conception but is an open-ended V with self-actualization being limitless. Encasing the developmental stages in a V rather than a closed triangle is a better reflection of how creative development occurs. The V formation indicates the infiniteness of self-actualization and proportional amounts of creativity needed at each stage of development. The broken lines of the model represent the transitional and flexible nature of creative development.

Stages

Survival needs are our physical needs including food, clothing, shelter, safety, health, care and nurturing. These are our basic needs that must be satisfied first. Many single women head of households find themselves here - trying to feed, clothe and keep a roof over the heads of their families. The creative process, at this stage, is focused on "making do with what they have", i.e. surviving. Once the survival needs are being met, we progress to meeting our social and emotional needs.

The social needs include developing relationships with neighbors, family, friends, groups, communities, etc. This involves the development of human connections to supports outside of ourselves. Meeting our social needs involve the development of empathy, the empowerment of others and rewarding external relationships. The creative process, at this stage, is expressed in terms of a group process, such as fund raisers, art shows, or civic activities. The second stage involves using creativity to meet our social and emotional needs. At this stage, creativity may be focused primarily on benefiting and caring for others, roles which are generally acceptable and available to women.

The esteem needs focus on self-confidence, self-worth, self-discovery and the mental needs of life. Personal validation is a major factor at this stage of development involving the identification of personal, inner strengths. Many women do not know what their strengths are because they have never stopped to think about themselves in terms of their personal ideas, dreams and abilities. Meeting our esteem needs involves developing the courage to express our individual ideas in the face of ridicule and rejection.

Meeting our spiritual needs involves the fourth stage of creative development or self-actualization. Maslow (1959) developed the concept of self-actualization and defined it as an ongoing process of making growth choices. Self-actualization involves the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, abilities, etc. Maslow found that creativity is a universal characteristic of self-actualizing people. Self-actualizing creativeness involves boldness, courage, freedom, spontaneity, integration and self-acceptance. Maslow (1987) described self-actualizing creativity as being almost synonymous with health and humanness.

Steps

The three developmental steps of each stage are similar to Torrance's Incubation Model of Teaching (Torrance & Safter, 1990). My conception of creative development is synonymous with learning. The three steps involve: 1) Awareness of a problem dilemma, challenge or a curiosity to learn more. This step involves the creative spark or idea; 2) Acceptance involves inquiry, investigation, research, learning about or examining the awareness. This step involves the creative process; and 3) Incorporation involves understanding and using what is learned in our lives, it involves action, practice, experimentation and integration. This step involves personal relevance, meaning and satisfaction. An individual may be on any step or at any stage of development at any given time since creative development involves transitions and is multi-dimensional by nature.

There is little doubt that the attitudes and treatment towards girls and women by society influences their creative development and behavior (Torrance, 1972). Many areas of experiences have been traditionally off limits to girls thereby interfering with the development of their natural gifts and effecting what they might become (Torrance, 1965). Understanding the creative development and expression of women is a means to utilize a misunderstood and often neglected resource.

What Can Be Done to Help?

Education can help by emphasizing:

• understanding and acceptance over assessment
• collaboration over debate - most women find the experience of being doubted debilitating rather than energizing
• respect and allowing time for knowledge that emerges from firsthand experience.

(Belenky et al., 1986, p. 229).

There are a variety of strategies that have been used to enhance and foster learning of women. One approach is that of mentoring and a second strategy is an instructional model, the Torrance Incubation Model of Teaching, that has been used successfully by women in learning environments.

Mentoring

Mentoring of female students by women scientists (Association for Women in Science, 1993) may be particularly crucial for attracting and retaining women in science because women are socialized to value connection (Rosser, 1997). The model for fostering women's learning advocates a connected approach to learning where life experiences are valued (Merriam & Caffarella, 1998). The connected approach to learning involves support and nurturance of every learner: where learners develop their own voices and see themselves as capable of being constructors of knowledge rather than just recipients (Merriam & Caffarella, 1998).

Most women and some men may have different learning needs than the majority of men, who represent the dominant and traditional culture (Tisdell, 1995). Recognition of women's talent by a teacher or another significant person in their life was vital to their development as both people and artists (Kirschenbaum & Reis, 1997). Mentoring has proven to be a powerful vehicle for women in developing their creativity and confidence. Mentoring appears to be an essential element for successful programs interested in recruiting and retaining women.

Instructional model

In 1990, Torrance's Incubation Model of Teaching (Torrance & Safter) was first published. Torrance had researched the model for twenty-two years before publishing it. This three-stage model has been used successfully in planning courses, planning lessons, developing instructional materials and in making instructions more effective for students and adults of all ages (Torrance & Safter, 1990). According to Torrance (1965, 1979, 1987), many things can be learned more economically and effectively if they are learned in creative ways rather than by authority.

In 1990, the Incubation Model was used to develop an interdisciplinary, innovative curriculum that was delivered to older adults in rural settings. Evidence indicated that the innovative educational intervention increased the participants' creativity scores significantly when experimental and control groups were compared (Goff, 1992).

Torrance's model has proven to be very effective in teaching adults as well as children. In courses with only women enrolled, this model was used successfully in instructing the students and in the development and delivery of lessons by the students. The Incubation Model is an effective method for transforming traditional curricula to a more women friendly format.

Conclusion

Consequently, there continues to be an unequal ration of successful women to men in creative fields. This can easily be seen in the large numbers of highly successful, recognized creative men in traditionally feminine pursuits, such as fashion design, hair styling, art, interior design, cooking, etc. The reverse is not true. There are very few successful, recognized creative women in traditionally masculine pursuits, such as politics, law, medicine, business, etc. (Noble, Subotnik & Arnold, 1999)

Why is this? Women have been enculturated to stay in the background and follow the male lead. Women tend to attribute our success to luck while men attribute their successes to ability (Kerr, 1994). The longstanding tradition of excluding women from public life has meant that women's experiences have been largely overlooked in research and theories of talent development (Noble, Subotnik, & Arnold, 1999). Women have as much work to do within ourselves to break down stereotypes, self-defeating attitudes and negative self-talk, as we do in the outside world.

Educational emphasis must be placed on nurturing the creativity of girls and women. According to Sadker and Sadker (1994, p. 14), "if the cure for cancer is forming in the mind of one of our daughters, it is less likely to become a reality that if it is forming in the mind of one of our sons. Until this changes, everyone loses." Creativity is not a gender specific ability, but its recognition, acknowledgement and development are.

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To contact Kathy or find out more please see her websites at www.creativityforsuccess.com and www.cowboy.net/~mcgoff

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